Thoughts on Wolfgang Smith’s Metaphysical Approach to Quantum Physics
by Dr. Alec MacAndrew
Wolfgang Smith has initiated a collaboration with Rick DeLano culminating in their planned 2019 film The End of Quantum Reality. As I understand it, much of the film has its roots in Dr Smith’s earlier works on the intersection between physics, metaphysics and religion, such as his 1995 work (reissued and updated in 2005), The Quantum Enigma. Smith also espouses geocentric, Young Earth Creationist and other pseudoscience views, not to mention bizarre and syncretic ideas such as numerology, astrology, and Hindu esoterism, but I intend to concentrate in this piece on his metaphysical approach to quantum physics, as set out most comprehensively in The Quantum Enigma. He bases the quantum physics aspects of his 2019 book, Physics and Vertical Causation: The End of Quantum Reality on the earlier work, to which he adds the geocentric, YEC and anti-relativity views.
Whereas many of the neo-geocentrists are
sadly unequipped to deal with the material they address, Dr Smith was educated
in physics and mathematics, has published papers on mathematics, and has been
on staff in some capacity at one or two good universities. Therefore, his opinion
on the meaning of quantum mechanics at the most profound level is, at least on
the face of it, worthy of consideration.
Cartesian Dualism and Modern Physics
In The
Quantum Enigma, Smith presents what is, at root, a teleological thesis
based on an idiosyncratic interpretation of quantum mechanics. Smith believes
that the world started to go wrong with Galileo, and since then the ancient
wisdom, the hylomorphic concept and the connection with the transcendent was
lost[1].
He charges Newton, Descartes, Darwin and Einstein with these crimes, but he
reserves his strongest vitriol for Descartes, and particularly for Cartesian
mind-body dualism, or the ‘bifurcation’ of reality. He lays the foundation for
the rest of the book with an exposition of what he believes to be this fundamental
misconception in modern thinking. As we shall see, his solution introduces a
fundamental and, as we shall see, unwarranted bifurcation of reality in its own
right.
According to Smith, moderns follow the
Cartesian error, which is to separate reality into mind and matter, the
internal and external reality, res cogitans and res extensa.
Cartesian philosophy implies that we cannot truly know the world, because we
are trapped in our minds and we can never know whether the impressions our
minds receive via our senses are true reflections of the external world (or
indeed whether there is an external world at all). We can never know whether
the impressions you receive correspond to mine, ultimately a question of what
modern philosophers call qualia, the experience of qualities in the external
world.
Smith never properly explains how accepting
the idea of mind-body dualism (the Cartesian assumption as he calls it), either
consciously or unconsciously, leads to all the errors of modern thinking that
he claims to exorcise, and how abandoning it allows the scales to fall from our
eyes and all that is paradoxical in quantum mechanics to become clear. Smith’s
inability or unwillingness to set out his case clearly against “the Cartesian
assumption” is frustrating. We see that he is railing against something, but he
identifies neither the thing nor the rationale for his opposition, nor what
benefits would accrue from giving it up. His chronic lack of clarity on this
point dates back at least to the 1995 edition of The Quantum Enigma and is still
present in the 2019 Physics and
Vertical Causation. In fact, so
far as the latter work goes, a reader attempting to understand Smith for the
first time with no exposure to his earlier works will struggle to discern a
coherent train of thought that commences with the fact of Descartes’s
philosophy and concludes with Smith’s assertion that eliminating it with the
help of quantum mechanics would solve any number of philosophical and
scientific puzzles faced by modern thinkers.
Of
course, one recognises the controversy in modern philosophy regarding Cartesian
dualism, expressed in various ways by critics such as A N Whitehead, David
Griffin and Paul Churchland. Smith conjures with the name of Whitehead[2] without describing or otherwise engaging
in Whitehead’s process philosophy or exploring how Whitehead proposed to
resolve the question of Cartesian dualism. For Smith, Whitehead is more
valuable as a stick with which to beat Descartes than a philosopher whose ideas
have value in their own right. Of Griffin and Churchland, there is no mention.
So, although substance dualism lacks neither critics nor difficulties, which we
are free to explore for ourselves, we are bound to read Smith as he writes, and,
despite castigating “the Cartesian error”, he is vague in The Quantum Enigma, to the point of incoherence, about
the philosophical problems that he believes are entailed by Cartesian thinking.
For
example, one struggles to see how the phenomenology of Husserl, whose name
Smith also wields like a magic wand3, can be invoked as a talisman
against Cartesian thinking, since Husserl takes Descartes’s methods as a spring
board, and creates an entire philosophy of phenomena from first principles,
much as Descartes created an epistemological philosophy from first principles[3]. Perhaps
Husserl can be regarded as having created a devastating critique of “the
Cartesian premises”, and perhaps not. Smith shines no light on the question. And
this characteristic of Smith, rarely to engage properly with others and never
to engage with those who raise difficulties for his thesis, pervades all his
work.
On this matter of Cartesian dualism and its relevance to the interpretation of quantum mechanics, Smith follows, to a great extent, the argument set out by Werner Heisenberg in his 1962 book, Physics and Philosophy[4]. The differences between them are that Heisenberg’s exposition of the issue is infinitely clearer and better constructed than Smith’s; that Heisenberg examines and finds wanting the Cartesian proposition of the separation between the observer, the I, and the rest of the world, rather than the mind-body, res cogitans–res extensa dualism which is its consequence; that Heisenberg concludes that the empirically determined facts of quantum mechanics undermine the idea of an objectively existing external res extensa that can be known fully and without ambiguity; and that Heisenberg, unlike Smith, is clear that abandoning Cartesian thinking does not, to any extent, resolve the fundamental paradoxes of quantum mechanics.
It turns out, anyway, that Smith is tilting
at windmills, because Cartesian dualism is far from being the predominant paradigm
amongst modern physicists and philosophers. Amongst the scientific community, realism
and monism prevail. Realism is the doctrine that our senses, with or without
the help of instrumentation, give us a more or less accurate representation of a
world that exists in reality and independently of our perceiving it, and that
truth is the correspondence between any proposition or model in question and
reality. Unless one believes that both direct perception by the senses and measurement using instruments
provide knowledge about the state of reality, it seems pointless to do physics
at all. Certainly, it would be hard, if not impossible, to justify a
solipsistic physics, and so scientists overwhelmingly subscribe to realism
rather than idealism.
Monism, as conceived by modern scientists
and philosophers, stands opposed to Cartesian dualism and holds that mind and
body are not separate entities. A popular version of monism, which relies on
the concept of emergence, describes mind as an emergent property or process of
body, or more precisely of brain (the philosophical stance known as
physicalism). According to this hypothesis, mind is what brain does. Smith
seems to think that modern scientists increasingly hold that mind is quite
separate from matter[5],
quoting the neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield. In any case, he fails to acknowledge
that much expert neuroscientific opinion does not now support Penfield or the dualism
hypothesis, and the evidence is extensive and growing that the activity of the mind
proceeds sufficiently from neural activity, based on the observation of strict supervenience,
the effects of neurosurgery and brain pathology, and other neuroscientific evidence.
His belief that physicists are overwhelmingly in thrall to Cartesian dualism
cannot possibly arise from any actual acquaintance with people working in this
field. One wonders how he arrived at the
idea that Cartesian thinking has modern physics and philosophy in its grip? He
can have reached that conclusion only with the help of dated and secondary
sources, Whitehead and Heisenberg perhaps, as he certainly has not tested it
for himself.
Although most working scientists hold realism,
emergentism and monism pragmatically, without examining them critically or thinking
through the implications of their stance, nevertheless there exist well-argued
and well-developed philosophical grounds for them. Realism in the philosophy of
science has been explored by Russell, Wittgenstein and Popper. Neutral monism,
a metaphysical school based on the work of Mach, James and Russell, is
continued today by, for example, the work of Chalmers, and Ladyman and Ross,
and especially Erik Banks who has developed neutral monism in a study in which
he refers to his updated version as realistic empiricism. Emergentism has a
history that dates back as far as John Stuart Mill. More recently, C. D. Broad
is widely accepted as developing the standard, modern description of the
position. Various forms of emergentism are currently being proposed and
vigorously debated by metaphysicians such as Kim, McLaughlin, O’Connor and
Humphreys. This is not the occasion for a discussion of these ideas in detail;
it is sufficient to note that this extensive literature exists and that Smith
does not refer to any of these influential thinkers; in fact, does not even
acknowledge the existence of these schools, which are obviously opposed to his assertion
that substance dualism prevails in modern thinking. Let us understand that I am
not seeking to take sides in the dualism-monism debate, to defend either substance
dualism or monism here. It is not a matter of which of these alternatives in
all their variations are true – that is not the point. It is enough to realise
that the claim that Cartesian dualism currently prevails with philosophers and
scientists is simply untrue. So, it transpires that Smith’s entire critique of
“the Cartesian assumption” is uncalled for and misdirected, leaving the reader
with a powerful sense that the first two chapters of the book have gone awry.[6]
I note in passing, that on the question of
dualism, he seems to be arguing against himself, revealing a surprisingly
muddled way of thinking about the problem of the processes that enable
perception. Having examined the “ghost in the machine” or the “Cartesian
theatre” doctrine of visual perception, the idea that there is a separate mind
which observes an image in the brain produced by the visual neuro-system, and
having rightly found that concept wanting, he concludes, “…the missing piece of
the puzzle must be strange. Call it mind or spirit or what you will…”[7],
thereby coming full circle and plumping for a solution that is
indistinguishable from mind-body substance dualism of a distinctly Cartesian
kind.
The Physical and the Corporeal
Smith then turns his attention to the
concepts of quality and quantity. He characterises the quality of objects as
being those attributes which are directly perceived, such as colour, smell and
so on. Conversely, a quantitative attribute is measurable which results in a
mathematically or at least numerically based result, such as the reading of a
pointer on a scale. (In discussing this point, Smith conflates the concepts of
mass and weight, as defined within physics, a surprising thing for a “physicist”
to do. His claim that mass is a contextual attribute is also wrong –
non-relativistic mass is an invariant and non-contextual attribute of an
object.) Qualities are not measurable and must be directly perceived. He then
proceeds, at some length, to propose that quantity is an attribute of physical objects, and these are the
proper and only objects studied by physics, whereas qualities are the
properties of what he calls corporeal
objects and can be directly perceived through an intellective, and in his view,
momentous act. To use his jargon, the intellective faculty perceives reality
instantly and directly, as opposed to the rational mind which reasons from data
to conclusions about reality. It is important to recognise that the term
‘perception’ extends to all the senses and is not limited to visual perception,
although the bulk, if not all, of Smith’s examples turn on vision.
This distinction, between the physical and
the corporeal, is, in his scheme, a categorical one, his claim being that
physical and corporeal objects are ontologically distinct. So far as a single object
goes, for example an apple, there is both a physical object (which he denotes
by ‘SX’) and a corporeal object (which he denotes by ‘X’) which are correlated,
in that the corporeal object is the manifestation or presentation of the
physical object on a higher ontological plane. Physics exclusively studies
physical objects and their quantities and is incapable of discerning qualities
which pertain only to corporeal objects. He associates the physical with Aristotle’s
matter and the Scholastics’ substance; and the corporeal with the matter given
form, the substantial form according to the hylomorphic principle. His claim is
that physics is incapable of acknowledging or studying qualities and can
therefore know nothing of the essence or “quiddity” of a thing, which is
manifested in its qualities. It cannot tell us what a thing is because its
essence and its qualities are outside the scope of physics. For Smith,
therefore, true higher knowledge of a thing can be gained only by consideration
of its qualities by direct perception without the aid of instruments[8];
physics can only access quantities and is limited to consideration of the
substance or the matter of things, their essence and form being inaccessible
and invisible to physical methods. Smith’s distinction between the physical and
the corporeal, between quantity and quality, is crucial for his scheme, as he
goes on to argue that the collapse of the quantum mechanical wave function,
which I will discuss below, is nothing other than the physical becoming
manifest in the corporeal plane, and so proceeding from potency to act.
Does this distinction between ‘physical’
and ‘corporeal’, as defined by Smith, stand up to scrutiny? Well, he does
rather gloss over the point, not by devoting insufficient words to it – words
there are aplenty – but by failing to develop his proposition with clear,
unambiguous definitions and with lucid illustrations that generalise his point.
He is obviously happier to exploit the distinction than to establish its
existence in the first place. His muddle can be illustrated by reference to his
own examples of which attributes constitute quantities and which constitute qualities.
For him a physical attribute is anything quantifiable
and measurable by physicists, in every instance by using an instrument, even if
it is merely a tape measure. To illustrate this definition he offers, as an
example, the attribute of mass. Physicists measure mass, he says, by placing an
object on a set of scales, the necessary instrument, and by reading a pointer.
(Actually, in this example what is being measured is weight, and mass is
inferred from Newton’s second law.) Weight is not directly perceptible, or so he
claims. But surely, we can directly perceive the difference between the weight,
and hence the mass, of a feather and of a cannonball, although our direct
perception of weight is not quantitatively precise (as are all direct perceptions
more or less quantitatively imprecise). Indeed, our ability to discriminate between
different weights becomes better when two objects are in question that can be
compared side by side. Because of the possibility of direct perception of weight
by hefting an object, using the kinaesthetic and other senses, then, by his own
definition, mass must be a quality as well as a quantity[9].
When a baker is preparing bread, he might
weigh the ingredients, flour and water, with kitchen scales, an instrument. An
experienced baker could equally well prepare a weight of the ingredients which he
directly perceives to be right, kinaesthetically, without using scales.
According to Smith’s proposal, in the first case the weight of flour and water
is measured and quantitative and thus a physical attribute, and in the second
case the weight is directly perceived and qualitative and thus a corporeal
attribute, and the two are ontologically separate. On the face of it, this is
ridiculous. So, it is the case that weight is an attribute which can be measured,
and which can be directly perceived.
His example of a quality is colour, specifically
that of a red apple. He states quite clearly that a colour is a quality because
“…redness…unlike
mass, is not something to be deduced from pointer readings, but something,
rather, that is directly perceived. It cannot be quantified, therefore, or
entered into a mathematical formula, and consequently cannot be conceived as a
mathematical invariant.”
Well redness can obviously be directly
perceived and distinguished from other colours, provided one is not colour
blind. Even for a “healthy” observer, where red shades into orange, there might
be some dispute as to how the object is more accurately described, whether it
is better described as red or orange; where the red is not fully saturated, the
disagreement might be between red and pink; whereas for objects that reflect
blue as well as red light, the discussion might be whether the object is red or
purple (magenta). So, redness is not a single trivially perceived quality, but it
merges imperceptibly (and sometimes controversially) into other colour
qualities, such as pink, orange, and purple. The reason for these gradual
transitions is that objective colours lie on a continuum[10]
as do the wavelengths of light which correspond to the colours. As in the case when comparing the masses of
objects, the colours of objects can be more easily discriminated by direct
perception if they can be compared side by side. And crucially, and in direct
contradiction to his statement above, the colour of an object can be more
accurately determined by quantifying it with an instrument and deducing it from
pointer readings, or their equivalent.
The colour of an object can be accurately
determined by a spectrophotometer, which measures the intensity of light
reflected from it as a function of wavelength and presents the result as a
(Cartesian) graph of reflectivity versus wavelength. The perception of colour
is contextual – a white object will appear red in a red light, but here again,
by measuring the reflected light, the instrument will accurately determine the
colour of that object in that context. Colour is directly correlated with
wavelength(s) of electromagnetic radiation: for example, a 633nm laser produces
red light, a 442nm laser produces deep blue and 528nm green. Photographers are aware of how important
colour calibration is throughout the photographer’s workflow in order to ensure
the photographic print is as faithful a copy of the original scene as possible.
Photographers, and digital photographic equipment, use various quantitative
schemes to represent colour, including RGB (red-green-blue) and HSL
(hue-saturation-luminance) values. I can say the apple is dark red, or I can
say it is #7d122b in hex RGB. The latter is much more precise than the former, but
both describe the objective attribute of the apple’s colour.
In one sense, colour can be regarded an
objective attribute, that is, it belongs to the object. Colour is also perceived
and so, in this sense, can be regarded as subjective. There is an obvious
correlation between the two aspects. In the human colour vision pathway,
different colours stimulate the three types of cone receptor to different
extents, and the absence of one or more types of cone causes defective colour
vision, manifested as an inability to discriminate colours (most commonly red
and green) which are clearly differentiated according to observers possessing
all three types of cone. The effective quantification of colour within the human
visual system is therefore seen to be a crucial part of the process of visual perception,
which culminates in the brain state we refer to as red or whatever colour we
perceive. According to this perspective, colour is quantified not just with
instrumentation, but within the visual system as an essential feature of colour
perception. The colour perceived therefore depends on the objective colour attributes
of the thing perceived, and on the physics and biology of the visual
pathway; and is analogous in this respect to the perception of any objective
qualitative attribute via the relevant sensory pathway. Nevertheless, the objective
colour, the attribute possessed by the object, is not affected by the inability
of someone with defective vision to perceive it “correctly”, and, in fact, we
can be sure that someone has defective vision if they are unable to distinguish
quantifiably distinct colours that can be distinguished by those with normal
vision; and moreover, defective vision diagnosed by testing is usually found to
be caused by an underlying physiological defect, in this case the lack of a
type of cone receptor. Because of the possibility of measuring and quantifying objective
colour, then, by Smith’s own definition, the attribute of colour must be a
quantity as well as a quality.
It seems, from the foregoing, that the
cases of mass and colour are equivalent. Mass can be measured quantitatively
but can also be directly perceived. Colour can be perceived directly but can
also be measured and quantified. The critical distinction that is at the
foundation of Smith’s thesis is therefore a distinction without a difference,
on the grounds of his own examples. In fact, we are done here, having reached
page 12 of a book of more than 100 pages – if the foundation is rotten the
building cannot stand.
It is true, of course, that there are real
attributes of objects, which, as humans with our human sensory apparatus, we cannot
directly perceive. Examples include the magnetisation and electrostatic charge
of objects, which can be observed with instruments, but which we cannot sense
directly. This limitation, however, lies not in the ontological status of the
attributes, but in the sensory apparatus that has evolved in human beings.
Other creatures do have the ability to perceive these attributes directly. For
example, homing pigeons can perceive the direction of the Earth’s magnetic
vector and use this percept to navigate. Many species of fish, as well as the
platypus, directly perceive electric fields, and the perturbation in electric
fields caused by the presence of objects. So, the issue turns out to be related
purely to the available sensory apparatus of the organism, rather than to a
fundamental ontological difference between the different sorts of attribute.
Moreover, Smith’s essential claim is that qualitative attributes cannot be
studied by physical methods, and it is this limitation of physics which he puts
forward to uphold his view that corporeal objects, which, according to him,
alone possess qualitative attributes, are on a different and higher ontological
plane from that plane which is studied by physics. However, we have seen that the
idea that physics cannot study qualities is wrong – physics is able to study
any objective attribute, colour, timbre, taste, smell, tactile feel and so on, that
he asserts to be purely qualitative.
Let us consider a potential criticism of my
analysis above. It is too facile, too simple to be taken seriously, the
critique goes. I am making a category error in claiming that redness can be
measured and quantified, because redness is a subjective property, it is, in
modern parlance, a quale, the experience of redness, and no-one knows in detail
how qualia arise and whether one person’s experience is similar to or
corresponds to another’s. However, that is not a criticism that Smith or the
Smithians can raise, because to do so would be to fall headlong into the
philosophy they deplore, the Cartesian pit. When Smith discusses quantities and
qualities, we can take it that he is referring to objective attributes,
attributes that belong to the object, which can be, but need not be, perceived,
and which persist in the absence of perception. In fact, he explicitly states
this to be so. He writes: “So far as objectivity and observer-independence are
concerned, therefore, the case for mass and for color stand equally well; both
attributes are in fact objective and observer-independent in the strongest
conceivable sense.”[11]
So, introducing the complication of qualia, the ineffable personal experience
of attributes, or any other observer-related consideration, makes no difference
to my argument above.
Next, let us look at colour from a scientist’s
point of view, and see how a scientist’s perspective of, say, a red apple
informs us about its attributes, and what that knowledge tells us about the
essence of the thing. Of course, the scientist can perceive the colour of the apple
directly just like the next person, so that quality is obviously available to
him along with its aesthetic and symbolic associations in all their richness, but
he is able to see much more. He understands, for example, that the colour arises
from the reflection of a particular part of the visual electromagnetic spectrum
(or to put the inverse case, by the absorption of the part of the spectrum
other than red), by certain pigments in the skin of the apple. The pigments in
question are anthocyanins, which appear in many varieties of ripe fruit (and
incidentally in the leaves of some deciduous plants in the autumn, giving them
that rich New England fall colour). The scientist knows the molecular structure
of various anthocyanins in detail and understands how the interaction of that
structure with white light results in the reflection of red light and the
absorption of the other colours by resonance at the absorbed frequencies. He
knows that different anthocyanins have somewhat different structures, resulting
in electronic resonances which cause the pigments to reflect different shades
of red and purple. He understands that the perceived colour is also a function
of the concentration of the pigment molecules in the skin of the fruit. He
understands the biochemical pathways that the plant uses to make anthocyanins,
and he even understands how DNA, which is active in every cell of every apple
tree, dictates the production of different anthocyanins in different strains of
fruit, and which genes are responsible. He knows that fruit has evolved to aid
seed dispersal and that the colour of ripe fruit has evolved as a signal to
animals (and man) that the fruit is ripe, thereby optimising the seed
dispersal. He understands that anthocyanin synthesis pathways originally
evolved in plants to protect them from light-induced damage at various stages
of their growth, so it seems that the protective pigment was co-opted to a new
signalling purpose later in evolution. It seems incontestable that
understanding these other aspects of the redness of apples can only add a
deeper and richer knowledge of the apple to that provided by direct perception
of its qualities, and that this additional knowledge tells us more about the process,
the end and the essence of an apple; that is, how it works, what it is for, and
what it is.
Richard Feynman eloquently made this point
about flowers[12],
and Richard Dawkins’s Unweaving the
Rainbow[13]
is an extended essay on how science enriches rather than impoverishes one’s relationship
to and understanding of the natural world (the title is an ironic quotation
from Keats’s poem Lamia, where it is claimed that Newton’s discovery of how a
rainbow is formed robs it of its mystery: “Philosophy will clip an Angel’s
wings, Conquer all mysteries by rule and line,
Empty the haunted air, and gnomed mine – Unweave a rainbow”. This sort
of misapprehension also seems to have been at the root of Goethe’s demonstrably
erroneous theory of optics, which was conceived as a crusade against Newtonian
optics).
In a passage critical for Smith’s
distinction between corporeal and physical objects, he tells the parable of the
billiard ball[14].
The billiard ball that we perceive is a corporeal object, X, he claims, and
associated with it there is a physical object, SX, which can be represented by,
for example, “a rigid physical sphere of constant density” (by “constant density”,
I take it that he means “uniform density” which means something quite different).
He continues: “The crucial point, in any case, is that X and SX are not the
same thing. The two are in fact as different as night and day, for it happens
that X is perceptible, while SX is not.” In order to prove this point, he
attempts to show that SX, the physical object, is not perceptible, because “It
can also be represented in many other ways. For instance as an elastic
sphere…”. He goes on to make a further claim, that the physical object is not perceptible
because it is composed of atoms or subatomic particles, and collections of
atoms cannot be perceived. He offers no evidence or argument for the latter statement
but states it as a truism, obviously intending the reader to take it as
self-evident. What we perceive, he insists, is an object, the identity of which
is indisputable, a red or green billiard ball (and it seems that here, and
elsewhere, he limits perception illegitimately to the visual sense).
But this is to beg the question: before
Smith can characterise corporeal and physical objects and discuss the
distinction between them, he must show that there are, in reality, two associated
but ontologically distinct objects, a task which he shirks. For when we
perceive a billiard ball, we know it as such, precisely because it is, and is
perceived to be, within practical limits, a smooth spherical ball, of a certain
uniform density, with a certain hardness and elasticity, and with a certain
diameter. In other words, in modal terms, these attributes, shape, density,
uniformity, size are essential rather than accidental properties of the
billiard ball. A ball that is not spherical, or that has non-uniform density,
or is 3mm in diameter, or is made of sponge or iron, is not a billiard ball at
all and a person familiar with billiard balls would not perceive it to be one. In
order to perceive the ball as a billiard ball, with an identity beyond dispute,
one must perceive that it possesses these essential attributes. The attributes,
sphericity, density, uniformity, size do not constitute a separate object on a different
ontological plane – they are essential attributes of the one perceptible object.
Nor are they objects in their own right, as Smith seems to treat the rigid
sphere. As for his diktat that collections of atoms are not perceptible, one reflects
that everything we perceive is, indeed, a collection of atoms, and that
therefore collections of atoms are, after all, perceptible as the object they
constitute, just as collections of grains of sand are perceptible as a beach. For
all the bluster of the parable of the billiard ball, what is left is a bare
assertion, decorated with the conjuring words corporeal and physical,
amounting to no more than a magical spell or incantation which evidently holds
his disciples in thrall.
It seems that Smith was influenced in his
ideas that the physical sciences can access only quantity, corresponding to
substance, by the French esotericist and metaphysician, René Guénon [15].
Guénon, was one of the founding triumvirate of the philosophia perennis school along
with Ananda Coomaraswamy and Frithjof Schuon. He is known as an arch-Traditionalist,
hermeticist, gnostic, freemason, Sufi, symbolist and numerologist, whose
over-arching notion was that the world goes repeatedly through a
multi-millennial cycle and has just now reached the lowest point in the
aftermath of the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment. Guénon sneers at what he
calls “profane science”, apparently a degenerate residue of the “ancient
traditional sciences”, and “profane arithmetic” and geometry in the modern
sense. His sacred geometry is the foundation of arcane symbolism, his sacred
number science is nothing more than rank numerology and his ancient traditional
sciences include astrology, alchemy and other activities associated with
hermeticism and occultism. This is all mumbo-jumbo, hardly worthy of serious
consideration. To the extent that he relies on it, it taints Smith’s argument[16].
But then Smith is foremost an esoteric Traditionalist in the mould of Guénon and only secondarily a Christian philosopher interpreting
Thomism for the 21st century – it is unsurprising to discover that
he subscribes to and incorporates into his work much of this nonsense[17].
So, Smith’s argument for his imagined
distinction between the physical object and the corporeal object, such as it
is, turns out to be illusory. There can be no ontological distinction between
these objects, because there is only one object, to which his own examples
attest, and his idea that a corporeal object is the presentation of a physical
object on a higher and distinct ontological plane is seen to be a mere fancy, a
superfluous bifurcation of his own. In every case, including the examples
proffered by Smith, there is only one object, with attributes of many kinds,
some of which we perceive directly through our senses, some of which we observe
and measure with instruments, and some of which, including his own examples of
mass (or weight) and colour, we can directly perceive and measure with
instruments. The exact correlation between our direct sense data and the
results of measurement of any attribute confirms that our senses and
instruments are accessing the same attribute of an ontologically single object.
We kinaesthetically perceive feathers to be light and cannonballs to be heavy
and this is borne out by the position of the pointer on the scales. We see a
red object and the spectral peak of its reflected light lies between 625nm and
740nm. So, the scientists’ instruments can be regarded as tools that extend the
reach of the senses, much as tools of manipulation, levers, knives, saws,
hammers and so on extend the reach of the arms, with neither category of tool
conferring any special ontological status onto the objects on which they act.
Introducing the Quantum World
How can we get to the crux of Smith’s book
if it falls at such an early hurdle? Could it be argued that what distinguishes
the physical from the corporeal object is not that the physical object is
devoid of qualities, and is pure quantity, as Smith would have it, but by some
other distinction, such as the size of the object. Might this be a way to save
Smith’s project? Could it be that the critical distinction that Smith is
searching for is between the quantum and the macroscopic world? In Physics
and Philosophy, Heisenberg explores this distinction and proposes that the
relationship of the quantum domain to the macroscopic domain is very like the
Aristotelian relationship of potentiae to actualities[18].
Following Heisenberg, can we identify the macroscopic
world with Smith’s corporeal plane, and quantum objects with the physical
plane? With some reservations, this might be a valid distinction. It is, at
least, worth exploring. Of course, Smith does not accept that the physical and
the corporeal can be classified in this way, insisting that the distinction
between physical and corporeal extends to macroscopic objects, that there
exists for every directly perceived corporeal object X, a physical object SX,
the potential not-thing that is studied by physics.[19]
He quarrels with Heisenberg’s conflation of X and SX for macroscopic objects,
or rather, Heisenberg’s implicit rejection of the existence of SX. But we have
seen that his definitions of physical and corporeal, which encompass macroscopic
objects, as well as quantum objects, are incoherent, so I am bound to find a
definition that makes some sort of sense if we are to continue to follow his
argument.
The chief reservation in accepting this amended
definition of the physical and corporeal is that there is no distinct size-related
boundary on one side of which objects behave as quantum objects, and on the
other side as macroscopic objects. The key question here is whether there is a maximal
limit to the size of quantum objects. Objects as large as molecules of 114 atoms
have been observed to behave as quantum objects in the Young’s double slit
experiment described below. It seems that there is no limit in principle to the size of an object
which can be made to behave as a quantum object (although, in practice, this
becomes more difficult the larger the object, and for macroscopic objects,
practically impossible), and quantum theory supports the view that quantum
behaviour is not limited in principle by size except by interaction with the
environment. Smith implicitly acknowledges that this perspective is correct by discussing
the meaning of the de Broglie wavelength for a macroscopic object. Be that as
it may, we can continue to follow his argument if we define the physical domain
to be restricted to obvious quantum entities such as photons or electrons,
which fall indisputably on one side of the ill-defined boundary, which clearly
behave unlike classical macroscopic objects, and which possess attributes which
cannot be directly perceived, such as inherent spin, isospin, parity and colour
charge, all of which are quantised attributes and therefore tightly linked to
their quantum nature. This does not do any violence to Smith’s argument, as he
relies on examples of the behaviour of just such quantum particles to develop
his hypothesis.
A summary of Smith’s hypothesis goes as
follows: he identifies quantum objects, and the quantum world in general with the
scholastic concept of potency; and the collapse of the wave function[20]
with a change of state from potency to act through a transformation from the
quantum or physical plane to the corporeal, directly perceivable plane. We
shall expand on these points later. One major interpretational difficulty that
quantum objects present is known as the measurement problem, and Smith relies
on the single-particle Young’s double slit experiment to illustrate it. A
description of this pivotal experiment, using light as an example, follows. The
principle applies to any pure quantum object – fundamental particles such as
electrons, neutrons and protons, atoms, atomic nuclei, small molecules and so
on.
In the classical Young’s double slit
experiment a beam of temporally coherent monochromatic light is passed through
two parallel slits. The width of each slit is a few times the wavelength of the
light or less. With both slits open, a pattern of dark and bright bands or
fringes, in the same orientation as the slits, can be detected on a screen
placed beyond the plane of the slits. The separation between the fringes can be
shown to be inversely proportional to the separation of the slits (the closer
the slits are, the broader the fringes are), and proportional to the distance
from the slits to the screen, and the phenomenon can be modelled precisely by
interpreting the fringes to arise from the constructive and destructive
interference of wavefronts arising from the two slits. If we close one of the slits, so that light
can pass only through the other, then the fringe structure disappears and is
replaced by a single bright area without fringes. This area is coincident with
the region of the screen where the fringes previously appeared[21].
The disappearance of the fringes is readily explained by the fact that, in this
case, the wavefront incident on the screen arises from only one slit, so that
interference no longer occurs. This
experiment demonstrates the fact that light can be considered to consist of
waves, which is perfectly consistent with classical electromagnetic theory in
which light is regarded as an electromagnetic wave.
But as Einstein demonstrated, light is
quantised, it comes in minimal packets or quanta called photons, each of which
have energy proportional to the frequency of the waves mentioned above times a
constant (known as Planck’s constant). So, light can also be regarded to
consist of a stream of particles. If we reduce the intensity of light in
Young’s apparatus to a value so low that individual photons can be detected, and
replace the passive screen with a screen that records the arrival of each photon
by, for example, a localised flash, then we will see what appears initially to
be randomly located flashes as each photon traversing the apparatus is detected
at the screen. However, if we record the position of each flash, then we find
that, over time, there is a greater concentration of flashes in those areas of
the screen where the classical interference fringes were previously bright, and
fewer or no flashes where the classical interference fringes were dark. In
fact, after a large number of flashes have been recorded, the area density of
flashes (number of flashes per unit area) follows the same function versus
position across the screen as the intensity in the classical case[22].
Furthermore, if we close one slit, (or
acquire “which path” information by observing which slit the photons pass
through, which can only be done by absorbing the photons at one or other slit,
in effect, blocking it) the fringes disappear as in the classical case. So, it
appears that light particles have wave-like properties that allow them to
interfere with one another.
If we reduce the intensity even further, so
that we are sure that only one photon is present within the entire apparatus at
any one time, surprisingly, we observe the same thing as before. After a large
number of photons are detected, fringes appear exactly as before as a
modulation of the area density of detected photons; and disappear if one or
other slit is closed (or we measure through which slit each photon passes,
which can be done only by effectively blocking one of the slits). It seems that
a photon can interfere with itself but can only do so if both slits are open
and we do not know which of the slits each photon passes through. If we put a
detector at the slits, then we only ever detect a photon passing through one
slit at a time. Yet the fact that the fringes disappear when one slit is closed
so that all the photons pass through the other, seems to indicate that photons
“know” when passing through one slit whether the other is open or closed, and
that when both are open, they somehow pass through both, even though, when
detected, they are only ever localised in one or the other. When the position
of a photon is measured it is localised, but before it is measured it appears
that one cannot say anything definite about its position, and in fact it seems
that it is not a meaningful question to ask where the photon is before it is
measured. This is the measurement problem, as conceived according to the
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics.
The single photon Young’s experiment does
not have a simple classical explanation. Quantum particles, such as photons,
electrons and so on, do not behave in a way that can be described or explained
in purely classical terms. Quantum objects display several other strange
effects, including entanglement (measuring one attribute of a member of an
entangled pair of quantum particles, fixes the attribute in the other particle,
regardless of how far apart these particles are), the apparent loss of direct
causality in quantum processes such as nuclear decay (individual instances of the
decay of atomic nuclei with the emission of particles, such as electrons, alpha
particles or electromagnetic radiation, does not appear to have a proximate
cause, although it does have a precise half-life which precisely quantifies the
statistical probability of decay), and quantum tunnelling whereby quantum
particles can “tunnel” through potential barriers in a way that is forbidden in
the classical world. One possibility is that these apparently strange effects
can be explained by local hidden variables, also referred to as local reality.
(Local hidden variables are classically deterministic effects which affect the
particles, but which cannot be detected experimentally and are not accounted
for in theory. Local hidden variables would imply that there are physical
effects not described by quantum mechanics, making it an incomplete theory).
John Bell’s theorem distinguishes between the predictions of classical physics combined
with local hidden variables and those of quantum mechanics. Experiments have
demonstrated almost, but not quite without doubt that the predictions of
quantum mechanics are correct, and that therefore local hidden variable
interpretations are ruled out.
The results of experiments which all but
confirm the predictions of Bell’s theorem mean that either deterministic reality
(the ability to speak meaningfully of the state of a quantum object before it
has been measured, known in the trade as counterfactual definiteness) must be
abandoned, or that deterministic reality is non-local (influences propagate
faster than the speed of light). Currently, a majority of physicists choose the
former option, because the latter, in its most simple flavours, violates the
axioms of special relativity. Those who choose to abandon counterfactual
definiteness, also abandon the notion that, knowing the state of an attribute
of a system at any time, it is possible in principle to predict its future and
past states to an arbitrary level of precision.
The Interpretations of Quantum Physics
The most popular interpretation of quantum
mechanics, the Copenhagen interpretation, abandons determinism and
counterfactual definiteness. According to the Copenhagen interpretation, a
quantum object (photon, electron and so on), before it is detected or measured,
is in a superposition of states, and the Schrödinger
wave equation describes the evolution of the probability that it will be in any
given state. When the quantum particle is detected or measured, the wave
function is said to collapse to a single state (an eigenstate) with a
probability density given by the square of the wave function at that time – so
in the case of the Young’s double slit experiment, the photon or electron is
detected at one or other slit or at a particular location at the image screen
with a probability which matches the intensity or energy distribution of the classical
Young’s experiment. There is a problematic role for the observer, or at least
for the measurement apparatus, in causing the collapse. Smith’s interpretation
of this phenomenon is that the state of superposition corresponds to the scholastic
state of potency and that the collapse of the wave function corresponds to the
state being actualised, a transition from potency to act, from physical to
corporeal. Smith argues that the quantum world is not in act, does not actually
exist, and that therefore physics, in this sense, studies entities which do not
exist, but which are merely potentiae.
Here, and elsewhere, Smith erroneously equates
quantum physics with physics in general – and he commits the fallacy of
composition in ascribing features of quantum physics to the whole of physics. When
one studies statistical thermodynamics, electromagnetism, geometrical or
physical optics, plasma physics, classical mechanics, relativity or
astrophysics, one is undoubtedly doing physics, but little or no consideration
of weird quantum effects is needed.
Be that as it may, Smith’s argument is that
physics is powerless to study the world as it is, what he calls the corporeal
world, the world that we perceive directly, because the physical world that
physics does study can now be seen to be non-deterministic or non-local, or
both. According to him, the project to explain the world fully, initiated by
Galileo, and pursued by Newton, Descartes and countless physicists since, is
doomed to failure because the actual world is on a different and higher
ontological plane from the objects studied by physics and because the events in
the world can no longer be seen as the consequence of deterministic
interactions of fundamental particles (atoms in the philosophical sense). This
claim depends, of course, on whether Smith has given a correct and
comprehensive description of the relevant aspects of quantum mechanics on which
he relies.
There are notoriously many interpretations of
quantum mechanics, few of which make unique predictions that can be tested by
experiment, and which therefore are not scientific hypotheses in the strict
sense. This has led some commentators to lose patience with attempts to
interpret the underlying meaning of the very accurate quantitative predictions
of quantum mechanics, prodding Feynman to make his famous quip, “Shut up and
calculate”; or Hawking to remark, “When I hear of Schrödinger’s cat, I reach
for my gun”. Nevertheless, interpretations abound, and although the Copenhagen
interpretation on which Smith bases his thesis is the most popular (it is also
known as the “standard” interpretation), it is far from being the only one. There
are other interpretations, equally conforming to the predictions of
non-relativistic quantum mechanics, which do not depend on the superposition of
states and the collapse of the wave function[23].
Take the de Broglie-Bohm interpretation (also
known as the pilot wave interpretation). According to this interpretation the
quantum object is always in a single definite state (it is counterfactually
definite), it is deterministic, and there is no role for an observer in
collapsing a superposition of states (there is, in this scheme no superposition
of states – quantum objects are always in a defined state). Smith does not
discuss this interpretation at all in The Quantum Enigma (except
to identify the Bohmian concept of a universal wavefunction, which is a
necessary element of Bohmian mechanics, with what he calls Nature, the
underlying ground of reality, without acknowledging that a universal
wavefunction forms no part of the Copenhagen interpretation on which his argument
rests) and fails to notice that the de Broglie-Bohm interpretation does not
comport with his metaphysics. I note in passing that this is Smith’s normal method
of argumentation – he ignores or gives short shrift to facts that stand against
his proposition[24].
He does mention the de Broglie-Bohm interpretation in his 2019 book, Physics and Vertical Causation: The End of
Quantum Reality, but dismisses it in less than a paragraph on the grounds
that the collapse of the wave function is instantaneous, thus outside time, and
therefore cannot be described by the Bohmian “differential equations”. In doing so, he rather misses the
point that Bohmian mechanics does not rely on this collapse, this event outside
time, at all.[25]
Other interpretations which do not call for
superposition and which are compatible with counterfactual definiteness include
Everett’s Many Worlds interpretation, Cramer’s Transactional interpretation and
Nelson’s Stochastic interpretation. The first two of these are also
deterministic. I don’t propose to discuss these in any detail – a full
discussion of all the interpretations of quantum mechanics with their ongoing
developments would fill an entire book or more. There is a vast literature on
the subject. For our purposes, it is enough to note that any viable
interpretation must and does make the
same correct empirical predictions as the Copenhagen interpretation, for example
with regard to experiments such as the Young’s double slit, the quantum eraser,
delayed choice experiments, and EPR type (entangled particle) experiments. The
fact is that these interpretations cannot be distinguished empirically, and so
are not strictly physical theories[26].
Of course, people are attempting to develop interpretations which can be
distinguished empirically, but as things stand, the choice of interpretation is
largely a matter of personal preference. Smith has chosen to build his
metaphysical thesis on the Copenhagen interpretation, and there is nothing
inherently wrong with that, but he fails to expose this limitation to his
readers, most of whom will not be aware of it. It does not matter for our
purposes which, if any, of these interpretations is correct. What matters is
that interpretations exist which satisfy the empirical constraints, but which
do not comport with his metaphysics. Building his thesis around one
interpretation lessens its import – if his argument were to follow necessarily
from the observations, rather than from one interpretation amongst many, it
would carry more weight than it does. As it stands, it is little more than the Copenhagen
interpretation spiced up with some Heisenberg and Aquinas – an interpretation
of an interpretation.
Decoherence
Furthermore, Smith entirely ignores the
relevant phenomenon of decoherence, the existence of which is uncontroversial.
Decoherence is the loss of the phase relationship between different states of
the quantum subsystem by interaction with the environment, or with the
measurement apparatus. It is the bane of quantum computing which requires the
phase relationships to be maintained in the face of thermal and other
environmental perturbations. The effect of decoherence is to reduce the quantum
probabilities of the system to classical probabilities, and the theoretical
basis of the process is well understood via, for example, von Neumann’s density
matrix description. To be clear, because decoherence results from the entanglement
of the quantum system with the environment, it doesn’t solve the measurement
problem per se. Nevertheless, instantaneous and discontinuous wave function
collapse as envisaged in the Copenhagen interpretation does not occur during
decoherence, for example when a quantum particle is absorbed by a measurement
apparatus. Instead, the entire system, the quantum subsystem plus the
environment can be regarded as being entangled in a superposition of states
with a vastly higher number of degrees of freedom. However, decoherence does
explain the appearance of wave function collapse, since the unitary
evolution (the uniquely defined evolution from a past to a future state) of the
quantum subsystem described by the Schrödinger equation or the density operators, is interrupted by
interaction of the quantum subsystem with the environment (or absorption of the
quantum subsystem by the environment or detection apparatus) in a non-unitary manner.
The pure quantum state of the quantum subsystem is therefore irreversibly lost,
and the quantum subsystem falls into a mixed state. This interaction can be
described either by the wave function or the density matrix formalism, and
results in the quantum probabilities that are described by the subsystem wave
function before environmental interaction, being reduced to classical
probabilities after interaction, a process known as einselection. It also
explains how a quantum subsystem entangled with a measuring apparatus, or any macroscopic
object interacting with its environment, behaves as a classical statistical
ensemble rather than a quantum superposition and thus appears to have collapsed
into a state with a precise value for measured observables for each element of
the subsystem. The localisation of macroscopic objects resulting from
decoherence rapidly approaches the de Broglie wavelength with increasing object
size, and the localisation occurs extremely rapidly, so that the superposition
of states for a macroscopic object (or for a system of quantum objects absorbed
by a measurement apparatus) cannot be practically observed either in time or
space.
Although the precise significance of
decoherence for resolving some of the philosophical problems of quantum
mechanics is still a matter of debate, the fact remains that decoherence is an
empirically verified physical phenomenon which creates difficulties for Smith’s
description of reality. For example, as we have seen, the combination of the
assumption that macroscopic objects obey quantum laws (albeit that they possess
very large degrees of freedom), and the effect of decoherence on transforming
the quantum probabilities of an ensemble to classical probabilities, explains
the localisation and other classical observations of precise attributes of macroscopic
objects (the localisation and other attributes become more precise and occur
more quickly the larger the object, occurring in timescales and with precision
indistinguishable from the classical case for objects larger than a few tens of
nanometres). This is in stark contradiction to Smith’s suggestion that physical
and corporeal objects are ontologically distinct, and that the wave function
collapse is the actualisation of a potency, which results in the instantaneous
change of ontological plane from the physical to the corporeal. Instead, what
we see is that the same quantum description applies to both quantum and macroscopic
objects, or to physical and corporeal in Smith’s language, with the classical
probabilities and the localisation of corporeal objects explained by
interaction with the environment and the influence of decoherence. It is a pity
that Smith chose not to reveal this difficulty to his readers and declined to
address the problem that the phenomenon poses for his thesis.
Do nucleons, electrons and atoms exist?
Let us now turn to another question, according
to which Smith proposes that what he calls corporeal entities are not constituted
by particles at all – that quantum particles cease to exist as particles once
they are incorporated into a corporeal object[27].
I find this argument startling and entirely unconvincing. Take, for example,
common salt, sodium chloride. A naturally occurring mineral crystal of sodium
chloride, a halite crystal, more than large enough to be seen and therefore a
corporeal object in Smith’s terms, has a basically cubic shape discernible by
eye, which is one important and defining attribute of its substantial form. This
is not an arbitrary property dictated from on high; there is a reason for it to
be so, and the reason is that within the crystal, the sodium and chlorine ions
are organised as two interpenetrating face centred cubic lattices, so that the
nearest neighbours of each ion of one species are six ions of the other species
arranged halfway along the lattice cell edges of the first species. This
arrangement is expected because of the strong electrostatic attraction between
the ions of the two species. That electrostatic attraction arises from the
respective valency of atomic sodium and chlorine, which in turn is a
consequence of the electronic structure of the atoms – the number of electrons
in the outer or valence energy level of the atom[28].
Far from it being the case that the particles disappear on being incorporated
into a corporeal object, it is the arrangement of the particles within the
corporeal object, based on their properties, which gives rise to one of its key
attributes – its shape. This arrangement
can be probed and demonstrated by, for example, X-ray diffraction. Moreover, it
has become possible in the last decade to image atoms in a lattice directly,
including imaging the migration of individual atoms within the lattice in real
time, using instruments such as the electron scanning tunnelling microscope
(itself relying on a quantum effect), the field ion microscope, and the ptychographic
electron microscope which renders extremely high resolution images down to the
sub-atomic level. So much for particles disappearing in corporeal entities.
As an aside, we can consider another of the
attributes of common salt crystals, an undeniable quality, its salty taste, which
we perceive as a consequence of the presence of sodium cations from the salt
dissolved in water being detected by dedicated cells on the tongue which make
use of a cation channel, the epithelial sodium channel (encoded by four genes
in humans, which are specific arrangements of a molecular structure in space on
the sub-microscopic scale – see below for a further discussion of DNA). This is
another example, to add to that of colour that we touched on earlier, that
refutes Smith’s claim that qualitative attributes cannot be studied by physics.
While we are considering whether physical
objects disappear or are subsumed into corporeal objects, let us consider the
case of the structure of DNA, famously discovered by Crick, Watson, Wilkins and
Franklin in 1953. It is a triumph of physics and biology that we understand the
molecular basis of heredity, which is present in every cell of our bodies, and
that of every cell in every other living creature on Earth. The famous last
sentence of Watson and Crick’s 1953 Nature paper goes: “It has not escaped our
notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a
possible copying mechanism for the genetic material”, and has proved not only
to be accurately prophetic, but also links the functionality of heredity with
the structure (the organisation in time and space) of an entity that Smith
would presumably consider to be physical (in his terms – i.e. studied by physics
and not perceptible to our unaided senses). Time and again, physicists and
other scientists show that the sub-microscopic structure of things is not only
real, but explains and determines the attributes, the qualities, the essence,
the quiddity of the so-called corporeal objects which it constitutes. It seems
after all that the world is built bottom up, not top down.
Smith’s Vertical Causation
In the final chapter of The Quantum Enigma, Smith introduces what
he believes to be a new idea related to causality, which he calls vertical causation
(VC). He contrasts VC with horizontal causation, which is that kind of causality
studied by physics (and the other natural sciences) in which events in
spacetime cause other events in spacetime according to the discoverable
regularity described by the laws of physics. He proposes a categorically
separate and higher form of causality, which operates outside time, and which constitutes
his explanation for the instantaneous collapse of the wave function. His main argument
in support of VC relies on the supposed instantaneity of the collapse, his
assumption being that the collapse must be caused, but that the cause does not
appear within the physical theory of quantum mechanics itself, and it must lie
outside time, so it must therefore proceed from a transcendent plane which lies
above and beyond normal reality. He likens it to an act of creativity. According
to him, vertical causation is incapable, by definition, of being recognised or studied
by physics or any form of natural science. Of course, all manner of charlatans[29]
seek to place their claims beyond science, hoping to smuggle them past proper scrutiny.
This is not to say that Smith is a charlatan, at least not knowingly, but any
claim of this sort should be treated sceptically, should be defeasible and must
be justified on some warrant other than its own assertion. Smith’s vertical
causation does not meet these criteria.
We have already seen that Smith bases his argument
on just one interpretation of quantum mechanics, in which he exploits the
philosophically problematic collapse of the wave function, but that he ignores other,
equally predictive interpretations that do not require this state selection.
The notion that vertical causation is a concept which proceeds naturally and
necessarily from empirical and theoretical quantum mechanics is therefore at
best enfeebled, at worst defeated. Vertical causation is an idea that purports
to solve the philosophical problems arising from one interpretation of quantum mechanics by the rather arbitrary
introduction of a form of causality that not only lies beyond perception but
cannot be recognised or studied by science. In truth this is nothing more nor
less than a magical “explanation” explaining nothing. One understands the
belief of some theists that the temporal and spatial world is constantly
brought into being and is held in being by a transcendent non-temporal (and spatially
unbound) entity, by God. Nevertheless, one would argue that Smith has not made
the case that this continual putative act of creation is specifically
manifested in the collapse of the wave function, the transition from potency to
act, as he would have it, in the quantum domain; and he has certainly not
developed an argument that is cogent on purely metaphysical rather than on a
priori religious grounds.
We are accustomed to think of causality in
the natural world, horizontal causation in Smith’s jargon, where one event
causes the next according to discernible natural laws, backwards in a great
chain to the start of time and reaching forwards into the distant future. The
idea that a different form of transcendent causality lies at the heart of the
natural world results in a startling epistemological crisis. According to
Smith, every event in which quantum potentiae are actualised is caused
vertically and instantaneously by an act of creation outside time and thus ever
present. It is but a small step, or no step at all, to occasionalism, the
doctrine which denies horizontal causation altogether, and which holds that
every event is directly caused by God, and that the appearance of natural
causality in the world is a consequence of God acting according to custom, but
that it is possible for him to do otherwise. For example, Al Ghazali, the
Islamic philosopher who first stated this position, gave the example of cotton
in a fire – the cotton burns, not because of the fire, or the fact that the
fire is hot, but because God directly causes it to burn, and this is so for every
apparent causal chain. Natural cause is an illusion. The Catholic philosopher,
Nicolas Malebranche, independently proposed occasionalism as a response to
Cartesian dualism. On this idea, physics would not study the regularities of
the physical world, and how one event causes the next, but instead, the habits
or customs of God.
However, this epistemological crisis is
avoided in the case of VC, because we see that the idea of a vertical cause of
the collapse of the wave function is arbitrary and unnecessary. Decoherence,
which we have discussed above, is not an instantaneous process, or a process
outside time, as Smith claims for the apparently uncaused collapse of the wave
function. A quantum subsystem can be completely coherent, or completely
decoherent, or partially coherent. For example, Haroche and collaborators, in a
seminal paper, were the first to report the measurement of a quantum subsystem
in transition from complete coherence to decoherence[30].
It is clearly a physical process, amenable to physical experiment, which can be
described by a physical theory based on various different but equivalent mathematical
formalisms. The fact that the appearance of wave function collapse can be modelled
and measured in time undermines Smith’s claim that it is a discontinuity which
occurs instantaneously and outside time and that therefore explicable only as a
creative, transcendental act.
Although believers are free to find their
teleology wherever they will, the history of “God-of-the-gaps” arguments is not
a happy one. In essence, Smith’s solution to the measurement problem and the
other philosophical problems arising from quantum mechanics is, to put it
grossly, “God does it”, to succumb to occasionalism, or something very like it.
This is an unsatisfactory explanation for observations of the natural world, which,
if accepted would dismantle the foundation of science. His assertion that the
true solution lies beyond the remit of physics should not and will not cut the
mustard. Theorists will continue to develop interpretations and extensions to
quantum mechanics in the reasonable expectation that a quantum mechanical field
theory will be found that is consistent with relativity. Whether a naively realist
interpretation of quantum mechanics will ever prevail is still an open question,
but that seems unlikely – there is no guarantee that human minds, which have
evolved to deal with the everyday macroscopic domain, will prove capable of visualising
the quantum domain on similar terms. While Smith is right to question whether
physics is a project which can ever understand the world without residue, it
does not follow that the residue de jour
should be identified with the supernatural. It certainly does not follow that
quantum collapse itself is to be associated with a supernatural act, or, as
Smith would put it, with vertical causation.
In Conclusion
So, there are several flaws in The Quantum Enigma. From the outset,
Smith’s campaign against Cartesian dualism is ill targeted, since the actual
default stance of scientists today is not substance dualism at all, but a form
of Realist Monism. His attempt to establish an ontological distinction between
the “physical” and the “corporeal” fails on the terms of his own examples, and its
failure undermines the entire edifice of his argument. He conflates one subset
of physics, quantum mechanics, with the entire discipline, which further confounds
the ontological distinction. In direct contradiction to his ideas, we are
forced to conclude that the apple as perceived by the intellect, with all its
rich associations, and the apple as studied by physics and biology with
measurement and reason, is one and the same ontological entity. Next, his
proposition that quantum objects in a state of superposition are equivalent to
objects in a state of potency, and that the collapse of the wave function is an
instantaneous change of ontological plane, from the physical to the corporeal,
from potency to act, suffers from the weakness that it depends on one
interpretation of quantum mechanics amongst many, and that it does not proceed
naturally and necessarily from observation, from empirical physics. Although it
is not precluded by the physics, Smith gives us no compelling reason to accept
his interpretation of an interpretation over any other. Furthermore, Smith does
not acknowledge the existence of the phenomenon of decoherence, which explains
the appearance of wave function collapse in purely physical terms and does not
acknowledge the difficulties it presents for his thesis. Finally, the concept
of vertical causation, which is built on the notion that the wave function
collapse is outside of time, also depends on one interpretation of quantum
mechanics amongst many, is refuted by the phenomenon of decoherence, and is,
moreover, a “God-of-the-gaps” argument.
Ultimately, The Quantum Enigma is disappointing, because Smith declines to
engage in detail both with relevant ongoing philosophical discourse and with
the science[31].
He limits his discussion only to those threads of philosophy and science from
which he believes he can weave his cloth, but the weave turns out to be a fatally
loose one. The scholarly tone of his book hides a polemic tract under a
superficial gloss. Despite its opaque language and dense construction, it never
properly engages with potential counterarguments or with the extensive
literature dealing with its various matters. In the final analysis, it is
simply lightweight. This view of Smith’s work is reinforced by his more recent
publications, and his claim to present a radical, transformational thesis remains
unrealised.
[1] Although Smith is
a Roman Catholic, he is a member of the traditional, esoteric and perennialist
metaphysical school (alongside philosophers such as René Guénon, Frithjof
Schuon, Anand Coomaraswamy, Harry Oldmeadow and Hossein Nasr). This
school condemns all aspects of modernity and values
pursuits such as arcane symbolism, numerology, sacred geometry,
alchemy, astrology and other secret “knowledge” accessible only to initiates.
[2] The Quantum Enigma, 2005, p20
[3] Husserl, Cartesian Meditations, available on-line.
[4] Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, first published 1962,
Penguin Classics edition 2000, p39.
[5] The Quantum Enigma, 2005, p24
[6] Smith is so opposed to Descartes’ notions that he claims, later in
the book, that Descartes invented analytical geometry to destroy the idea of
potency and act in mathematics by coordinatizing the continuum, and that
Descartes’ primary motivation was to “extirpate” the continuum, which Smith
sees as the material principle, in the sense of scholastic matter, in the
quantitative domain. Whatever, the merits or otherwise of Descartes’
philosophy, the idea that analytical geometry was invented primarily as an
attack on traditional metaphysics is grotesque.
[7] The Quantum Enigma, 2005, p26
[8] At this point in his argument, and as an aside, Smith proposes that
direct perception, without instrumentation, of corporeal objects and their
essence is the foundation of traditional sciences, for example the five
elements of the ancient cosmologies, or the five bhudas of Hindu doctrine.
[9] There is an extensive science dedicated to understanding the
psychophysical aspects of direct weight perception – see, for example, Jones
(1986), Perception of force and weight: Theory and research, Psychol. Bull. 100, 29–42. The integration of visual and touch perception
in lift planning has been studied, for example, Jeannerod et al (1995),
Grasping objects: the cortical mechanisms of visuomotor transformation, Trends
Neurosci. 18, 314–320
[10] In fact, not a one dimensional, but a multi-dimensional continuum,
since pure spectral colours are mixed in most naturally occurring colours
[11] Smith, The Quantum Enigma, p14
[12] Feynman’s monologue on the subject is available in many places on
the web, for example: https://www.brainpickings.org/2013/01/01/ode-to-a-flower-richard-feynman/
[13] Richard Dawkins, Unweaving the Rainbow; Science, Delusion and
the Appetite for Wonder, 1998
[14] Smith, The Quantum Enigma, p34
[15] René Guénon, The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times,
first published in French, 1945; third edition in English, Sophia Perennis
1995.
[16] The fact that Smith declares an overwhelming preference for
Guénon’s philosophy, as it pertains to modernity, over the philosophy of
Jacques Maritain, will tell all educated Catholics what they need to know about
Smith’s predilections – Smith, Science and Myth, 2010 revised 2012,
Angelico Press/Sophia Perennis p31.
[17] For an example of Smith’s adherence to numerology and astrology,
see Smith, Science and Myth, Chapter 6
[18] Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, first published 1962,
Penguin Classics edition 2000, p22
[19] Smith, The Quantum Enigma, p74
[20] Smith refers to the collapse of the “state vector”. The state
vector and the wave function are different but related mathematical concepts
which are used to describe the behaviour of quantum objects, and for our
purposes the phrases “collapse of the state vector” and “collapse of the wave
function” are synonymous and refer to the same event – I prefer the latter
phrase because it is in more common use.
[21] Smith’s description of the Young’s experiment is technically
incorrect in one respect important for a correct understanding of it. As his
error does not fundamentally affect his argument or my response, but only the
understanding of his readers, we needn’t explore his error in detail, except to
register surprise that a physicist would make such an elementary error in a
publication.
[22] If one applies the Schrödinger equation, which describes the
evolution of the probability distribution for the state of a quantum particle
over time, to the interaction of particles with Young’s slits, one recovers a
probability distribution for the location of a particle at the detection screen
which matches, exactly, the wave interference intensity in the classical wave
case (and this is true for any interaction of quantum particles which have a
classical wave analogue described by classical diffraction and interference
theory. This is a necessary condition for the Schrödinger
equation to be an accurate description of the probability of particle location,
since the classical case can be regarded as a very large ensemble of particles
arriving at the screen at every moment). Note that there is a technical issue
with naïvely using the Schrödinger equation to model the behaviour of photons
and other relativistic particles, but that need not trouble us here.
[23] Note that there are also different mathematical formulations of
quantum mechanics. The Schrödinger formulation and the Heisenberg
matrix mechanics were the first complete formulations of non-relativistic QM.
Later formulations include Feynman’s path integral. These, and other,
formulations can be shown to be fundamentally equivalent, but each are useful
in solving different problems. Formulations are not the same as
interpretations, the former being transactional and the latter philosophical,
but different formulations emphasise different aspects of various
interpretations.
[24] Smith’s lack of proper attention to facts or views that oppose his
position, which I note here, extends across much of his discourse, and includes
his silence on the philosophies of realism, monism and emergentism, modern
neurophysiology and other aspects of the science of consciousness, interpretations
of QM other than the Copenhagen interpretation, and decoherence in quantum
theory. It extends to ignoring the devastating criticism of the inconsequential
rabble whom he quotes in his support, which includes such luminaries as
Berthault, Popov, Gentry, Humphreys, Johnson and their ilk. In a striking
display of projection, in Science and Myth p194 he accuses Stephen
Hawking of the same offence, listing a raggle-taggle band of pseudoscientific
fellow travellers whom he thinks Hawking should have noticed. On the other
hand, the science and philosophy he sweeps under the carpet are espoused by the
leading scholars of the day in the appropriate disciplines.
[25] If Bohmian mechanics is deterministic and counterfactually
definite, why is it not the preferred interpretation of QM? The answer is that,
at least in its original form, the trajectories of the particles are distinctly
non-Newtonian. Furthermore, it is non-local and therefore cannot easily be
reconciled with special relativity. Versions of Bohmian mechanics which are
Lorentz covariant and built on a Riemannian space-time have been and are being
developed, but the success of these extensions remain in dispute.
[26] Objective Collapse theories, such as the Ghirardi-Rimini-Weber
interpretation regard quantum mechanics as an incomplete theory and, to that
extent, are actual physical theories, since they hypothesise extensions to it.
[27] Smith, The Quantum Enigma, p118
[28] The outer shell of sodium contains one electron, so the sodium atom
readily gives up that electron to form a positive ion. The outer shell of
chlorine contains seven electrons, so readily accepts one electron to complete
the shell thus forming a negative ion. Sodium chloride is an ionic crystal in
which the chlorine atom accepts an electron from a sodium atom to form an
electrostatically bound lattice of positive sodium and negative chlorine ions.
[29] For example, adherents of homeopathy, astrology, psychic phenomena,
crystal healing, Reiki and so forth attempt to bypass scientific scrutiny by
declaring that their claims work in ways that are inaccessible to scientific
validation.
[30] Haroche et al, Observing the Progressive Decoherence of the
“Meter” in a Quantum Measurement. Phys. Rev. Lett. 77
(24): 4887–4890
[31] Smith provides an appendix in The Quantum Enigma in which he
lays out the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics based on the Schrödinger approach. It is not clear what he hopes to achieve by this –
it offers no value to those equipped to understand it since it is entirely
derivative and extremely elementary – there is nothing that cannot be found in
the first few pages of any relevant undergraduate text; and clearly it offers
no value to those unequipped or unwilling to engage with it. Since The Quantum Enigma depends on
interpretations of quantum mechanics, Smith would have been better advised to
set out a comprehensive comparison of the various interpretations, discuss
their philosophical implications, and face up to those implications for his
thesis, instead of pretending that only one exists. He should also have
confronted the phenomenon of decoherence.
